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Preface to the Twentieth Edition v
Table of Cases xxv
Table of Authorities xxxix
The Constitution of the United States of America lix
Chapter 1. The Supreme Court’s Authority and Role
1
Section 1. The Power of Judicial Review 1
Marbury v. Madison 2
The Background and Meaning of Marbury v. Madison 9
Section 2. Supreme Court Authority to Review State Court Judgments 16
Martin v. Hunter’s Lessee 17
Further Clashes Between Supreme Court and State Court Authority 19
Section 3. Judicial Exclusivity in Constitutional Interpretation 20
Cooper v. Aaron 21
The Authoritativeness of Supreme Court Decisions 22
Political Restraints on the Supreme Court 30
Section 4. Constitutional and Prudential Limits on Constitutional Adjudication: The “Case or Controversy” Requirements 34
Advisory Opinions 35
Standing 38
Lujan v. Defenders of Wildlife 38
Massachusetts v. Environmental Protection Agency 43
The Constitutional and Prudential Elements of Standing 47
Mootness and Ripeness 58
Political Questions 59
Baker v. Carr 60
Distinguishing Legal from Political Questions 66
Chapter 2. Federalism: History and Principles
75
Section 1. Enumerated Powers and McCulloch v. Maryland 77
McCulloch v. Maryland 79
Section 2. The Limits of the Necessary and Proper Clause 91
United States v. Comstock 92
Federalism-Based Limits on the Necessary and Proper Clause? 94
Section 3. The Location of Sovereignty in the Federal System 97
Recent Challenges to the Location of Sovereignty in the Constitutional System 100
U.S. Term Limits, Inc. v. Thornton 101
Term Limits and McCulloch 105
Section 4. Values Served by Federalism 107
Chapter 3. The Commerce Power and Its Federalism-Based Limits
113
Section 1. The Commerce Power Before the New Deal 114
Gibbons v. Ogden 114
Judicial Limits on the Commerce Power 116
Hammer v. Dagenhart [The Child Labor Case] 120
Section 2. The Commerce Power and the New Deal 122
Section 3. The Commerce Power After the New Deal 128
NLRB v. Jones & Laughlin Steel Corp. 129
United States v. Darby 131
Wickard v. Filburn 134
Judicial Deference Toward Exercise of the Commerce Power 135
Section 4. The Contemporary Commerce Power 139
United States v. Lopez 140
Rehnquist-Era Restrictions on the Commerce Power 147
United States v. Morrison 148
The Commerce Power Strikes Back? 151
Gonzales v. Raich 152
Commerce Clause Review Leading up to the Affordable Care Act 157
National Federation of Independent Business v. Sebelius 160
NFIB and the Commerce Power 166
Section 5. The Tenth Amendment as an External Constraint on the Federal Commerce Power 167
New York v. United States 173
The Scope and Limits of the Anticommandeering Principle 177
Section 6. State Sovereign Immunity and the Eleventh Amendment 183
Chapter 4. The National Taxing and Spending Powers and Their Federalism-Based Limits
191
Section 1. The Taxing Power as a Regulatory Device 191
Child Labor Tax Case [Bailey v. Drexel Furniture Co.] 191
National Federation of Independent Business v. Sebelius 196
The Taxing Power as a Federal Regulatory Device After NFIB 199
Section 2. The Spending Power as a Regulatory Device 200
United States v. Butler 201
The Spending Power After the New Deal 204
South Dakota v. Dole 207
The Spending Power Between Dole and NFIB 211
National Federation of Independent Business v. Sebelius 212
The Spending Power After NFIB 217
Chapter 5. Federal Limits on State Regulation of Interstate Commerce
221
Section 1. The Dormant Commerce Clause 221
The Nondiscrimination Principle 222
The History of the Dormant Commerce Clause 225
Gibbons v. Ogden 226
The Nascent Dormant Commerce Clause 228
Facial Discrimination Against Out-of-State Commerce 231
Philadelphia v. New Jersey 231
Home Processing Requirements 238
Dean Milk Co. v. Madison 239
C & A Carbone, Inc. v. Clarkstown 241
United Haulers Ass’n v. Oneida-Herkimer Solid Waste Management Authority 243
The Dean Milk-Carbone-United Haulers Trilogy 245
The Market Participant Exception 248
South-Central Timber Development, Inc. v. Wunnicke 248
The Theory and Limits of the Market Participant Exception 252
Facially Neutral Laws with Protectionist Purpose or Effect 253
Baldwin v. G.A.F. Seelig, Inc. 254
H.P. Hood & Sons v. Du Mond 255
Identifying Protectionism in Facially Neutral Laws 256
Balancing Facially Neutral Laws with a Disproportionate Adverse Effect on Commerce 260
Kassel v. Consolidated Freightways Corp. 262
Balancing Interstate Harm Against Local Benefit 267
Section 2. The Interstate Privileges and Immunities Clause of Article IV 271
United Building & Construction Trades Council v. Mayor and Council of Camden 271
The Scope and Limits of Interstate Privileges and Immunities 277
Section 3. Congressional Ordering of Federal-State Relationships by Preemption and Consent 278
Congressional Preemption of State Regulation 278
Pacific Gas & Elec. Co. v. State Energy Resources Conservation & Development Comm’n 278
Modes of Preemption Analysis 283
Congressional Consent to State Regulation 287
Section 4. Other Aspects of Federal-State Relationships 290
State Taxation of Interstate Business and Income 290
Intergovernmental Tax Immunities 293
Intergovernmental Regulatory Immunities 294
Mutual Obligations Among the States 295
Chapter 6. Separation of Powers
297
Section 1. Executive Assertions of Power 298
Youngstown Sheet & Tube Co. v. Sawyer [The Steel Seizure Case] 298
Executive Authority to Make National Domestic Policy 306
Zivotofsky v. Kerry 309
Executive Authority over Foreign and Military Affairs 315
Dames & Moore v. Regan 317
Dames & Moore in Light of Youngstown 321
Executive Power, Immigration and Religious Bias 324
Section 2. Congressional War and Treaty Powers, and the Implied Power over Foreign Affairs 333
Woods v. Cloyd W. Miller Co. 333
Missouri v. Holland 335
The War and Treaty Powers 336
Section 3. Executive and Congressional Discretion in Times of War or Terrorism 341
The President, Congress and War Powers 341
Emergency Constitutionalism 345
Executive Detention and Trial of “Enemy Combatants” 350
Ex parte Quirin 353
From Quirin to the 9/11 Response 355
Hamdi v. Rumsfeld 360
The Scope of Hamdi 369
Hamdan v. Rumsfeld 372
The Aftermath of Hamdan 378
Boumediene v. Bush 379
Assessing Hamdi, Hamdan and Boumediene 388
Section 4. Congressional Authority to Restrain and Enable the Executive 390
Congressional Control over the Actions of the Executive Branch 391
INS v. Chadha 393
Bicameralism and Presentment 399
Clinton v. New York 401
Congressional Constraints on Appointment and Removal of Executive Officers 404
Bowsher v. Synar 409
Morrison v. Olson 414
The Aftermath of Morrison v. Olson 419
Section 5. Executive Privileges, Immunities and Congress’s Power of Impeachment 424
United States v. Nixon 425
The Scope and Limits of Executive Privilege 427
Clinton v. Jones 429
The Implications and Aftermath of Clinton v. Jones 435
Chapter 7. The Post-Civil War Amendments and the “Incorporation” of Fundamental Rights
443
Section 1. Individual Rights Before the Civil War 444
Barron v. Mayor and City Council of Baltimore 444
Dred Scott v. Sandford 446
The Aftermath of Dred Scott 449
Section 2. The Post-Civil War Amendments 451
Slaughter-House Cases 451
The Meaning of the Slaughter-House Cases 455
Saenz v. Roe 459
Saenz v. Roe and the “Right to Travel” 462
Section 3. The “Incorporation” of the Bill of Rights Through the Due Process Clause 465
Duncan v. Louisiana 468
Incorporation Since Duncan 471
McDonald v. City of Chicago 475
The Meaning and Implications of Heller and McDonald 482
Chapter 8. Due Process
485
Section 1. Substantive Due Process and Economic Liberties 485
Lochner v. New York 489
The Meaning and Implications of Lochner 495
Nebbia v. New York 500
The Demise of Lochner After the New Deal 501
Minimum Rationality Review of Economic Legislation 504
Williamson v. Lee Optical Co. 504
Closer Scrutiny of Economic Classifications? 506
Section 2. Substantive Due Process and Privacy 509
Substantive Due Process, Childbearing and Contraception 510
Griswold v. Connecticut 511
The Meaning and Implications of Griswold 518
Substantive Due Process and Abortion 520
Roe v. Wade 521
The Meaning and Implications of Roe 524
Planned Parenthood of Southeastern Pa. v. Casey 531
The Meaning and Implications of Casey 538
Gonzales v. Carhart 541
Whole Woman’s Health et al. v. Hellerstedt, Commissioner, Texas Department of State Health Services, et al. 544
Substantive Due Process and Marriage and Family Relationships 547
Substantive Due Process, Sexuality and Hybrid Due Process-Equal Protection Rights 553
Romer v. Evans 556
The Meaning and Implications of Romer 561
Lawrence v. Texas 563
The Meaning and Implications of Lawrence 571
United States v. Windsor 575
The Meaning and Implications of Windsor 582
Obergefell v. Hodges 583
The Meaning and Implications of Obergefell 591
Substantive Due Process and Rights over the Timing and Circumstances of One’s Death 592
Washington v. Glucksberg 595
The Meaning and Implications of Glucksberg 602
Section 3. Procedural Due Process and the Right to a Hearing 604
Defining “Property” and “Liberty” 604
What Process Is “Due”? 608
Section 4. Textual Guarantees of Economic Liberties: The Takings Clause and the Contracts Clause 611
The Takings Clause 611
The “Public Use” Requirement 612
Kelo v. City of New London 614
The Meaning and Implications of Kelo 619
Regulatory “Takings” 622
Pennsylvania Coal Co. v. Mahon 623
The Meaning and Implications of Pennsylvania Coal 625
The Contracts Clause 636
Home Building & Loan Ass’n v. Blaisdell 638
The Scope and Limits of Blaisdell 640
Chapter 9. Equal Protection
645
Section 1. Minimum Rationality Review of Economic Regulation 646
Railway Express Agency v. New York 647
Judicial Deference to Economic Regulation 649
Should Rationality Review Be Stricter? 654
Section 2. Race Discrimination 656
The Unconstitutionality of Racial Segregation 656
Brown v. Board of Education [Brown I] 661
The Meaning and Implications of Brown v. Board 663
Implementing Brown v. Board 667
Eliminating Other Vestiges of Segregation 671
Loving v. Virginia 672
Facial Discrimination Against Racial Minorities 676
Racially Discriminatory Purpose and Effect 680
Washington v. Davis 684
The Meaning and Implications of Washington v. Davis 687
Affirmative Action and Race Preferences 691
Regents of Univ. of California v. Bakke 692
Bakke and Amicus Briefs 698
Race Preferences in Employment and Contracting 699
Adarand Constructors, Inc. v. Pena 704
Affirmative Action After Croson and Adarand 709
Grutter v. Bollinger 710
Gratz v. Bollinger 719
The Meaning and Implications of Grutter and Gratz 722
Fisher v. University of Texas at Austin et al. 729
Racial Diversity in K–12 Public Education 735
Parents Involved in Community Schools v. Seattle School District 736
The Meaning and Implications of Parents Involved 744
Race Preferences in Electoral Districting 744
Shaw v. Reno [Shaw I] 745
The Aftermath of Shaw I 750
Section 3. Sex Discrimination 755
Discriminating on the Basis of Sex 756
Craig v. Boren 761
Sex Equality After Craig v. Boren 765
United States v. Virginia 768
Sex Equality, Sex Differences and the Question of Gender 775
Sex-Based Purpose and Effect 786
Sex-Based Preferences: Affirmative Action for Women 789
Section 4. Discrimination Based on Other Potentially “Suspect” Classifications 793
Sexual Orientation 793
Alienage 794
Disability, Age, Poverty 798
Cleburne v. Cleburne Living Center, Inc. 799
The Cabining of Suspect Classifications 803
Section 5. The “Fundamental Interests” Branch of Equal Protection 805
Fundamental Interest in Voting 805
Harper v. Virginia State Board of Elections 806
Kramer v. Union Free School District No. 15 808
Strict Scrutiny of Vote Denials 809
Vote “Dilution”: Reapportionment and Gerrymandering 813
Reynolds v. Sims 814
Judicial Scrutiny of Political Gerrymanders 819
Davis v. Bandemer 820
Political Gerrymanders After Davis 822
Fundamental Right of Access to Courts 828
Economic Barriers and the Criminal Process 828
Economic Barriers and Civil Litigation 832
M.L.B. v. S.L.J. 834
No Fundamental Interest in Food, Shelter, Education 839
San Antonio Independent School Dist. v. Rodriguez 841
Chapter 10. Congress’s Civil Rights Enforcement Powers
853
Section 1. The Civil Rights Statutes of the Reconstruction Era 853
Section 2. The Requirement of State Action 856
Civil Rights Cases 856
The Scope and Limits of State Action After the Civil Rights Cases 860
Shelley v. Kraemer 863
State Action After Shelley v. Kraemer 865
Jackson v. Metropolitan Edison Co. 870
The State Action Doctrine After Moose Lodge and Jackson 872
Section 3. Congressional Power to Reach Private Interference with Constitutional Rights 878
United States v. Guest 878
Criminal Sanctions for Private Interference with Fourteenth Amendment Rights 881
Civil Sanctions for Private Interference with Fourteenth Amendment Rights 883
Congressional Power to Reach Private Conduct Under the Thirteenth Amendment 885
Jones v. Alfred H. Mayer Co. 885
Thirteenth Amendment Powers and the 1866 Civil Rights Act 886
Section 4. Congressional Power to Enforce Civil Rights Under the 14th and 15th Amendments 888
Congressional Protection of Voting Rights 888
Katzenbach v. Morgan 892
The Meaning and Aftermath of Katzenbach v. Morgan 897
City of Boerne v. Flores 902
The Meaning and Scope of Boerne 907
Shelby County v. Holder 909
The Voting Rights Act After Shelby County 913
United States v. Morrison 915
The Meaning and Scope of Morrison 917
Chapter 11. Freedom of Speech—Categories of Speech—Degrees of Protected Expression
931
Section 1. Free Speech: An Overview 931
First Amendment History 932
First Amendment Theory 935
First Amendment Jurisprudence 940
Section 2. Incitement to Violence or Subversion 946
Schenck v. United States 947
The “Clear and Present Danger” Test 948
Abrams v. United States 950
Alternatives to Clear and Present Danger 954
Masses Publishing Co. v. Patten 956
Comparing the Holmes and Hand Approaches 959
Gitlow v. New York 961
Whitney v. California 965
Criminal Anarchy and Syndicalism Laws 969
Dennis v. United States 970
“Clear and Present Danger” After Dennis 976
Brandenburg v. Ohio 978
The Meaning and Implications of Brandenburg 981
Section 3. Fighting Words and Hostile Audiences 985
Fighting Words 986
Chaplinsky v. New Hampshire 986
Fighting Words Since Chaplinsky 987
Hostile Audiences and the Heckler’s Veto 990
Early Hostile Audiences Cases 990
Feiner v. New York 993
Distinguishing Feiner in Later Cases 995
Cohen v. California 998
Offensive Speech 1002
Section 4. Injury to Reputation, Sensibility, Dignity, Equality 1002
Libel 1003
Beauharnais v. Illinois 1003
The Legacy of Beauharnais 1005
First Amendment Limits on Libel 1006
New York Times Co. v. Sullivan 1006
The Meaning and Implications of New York Times 1009
The Scope of New York Times 1013
Gertz v. Robert Welch, Inc. 1015
Defamation of Private Parties After Gertz 1019
Privacy Torts 1020
Bartnicki v. Vopper 1023
Intentional Infliction of Emotional Distress 1027
Hustler Magazine v. Falwell 1028
Snyder v. Phelps 1030
Hate Speech 1033
Collin v. Smith 1033
R.A.V. v. City of St. Paul 1038
The Meaning and Implications of R.A.V. 1044
Virginia v. Black 1049
Section 5. Sexually Explicit Expression 1055
Obscenity 1056
Roth v. United States; Alberts v. California 1056
Obscenity Between Roth and Miller 1058
Miller v. California 1061
Paris Adult Theatre I v. Slaton 1064
Obscenity Law After Miller and Paris 1069
Sexually Explicit but Nonobscene Expression 1074
Regulating Pornography as Subordination of Women 1076
American Booksellers Ass’n v. Hudnut 1076
Hudnut and the Social Harms of Pornography 1080
Nudity Bans 1081
Erznoznik v. Jacksonville 1082
Nudity Bans After Erznoznik 1084
Zoning Commercial Sexual Expression 1085
Young v. American Mini Theatres 1085
Renton v. Playtime Theatres, Inc. 1089
City of Los Angeles v. Alameda Books, Inc. 1090
Zoning Laws and Secondary Effects 1094
Child Pornography 1094
New York v. Ferber 1095
Child Pornography as Unprotected Speech 1098
Section 6. Speech in New Media 1099
Indecent and Sexual Speech in New Media 1100
FCC v. Pacifica Foundation 1100
The Limits of Pacifica 1105
Sable Communications, Inc. v. FCC 1108
Total Bans on Indecent Speech on Cable and Online 1109
Reno v. American Civil Liberties Union 1111
Online Regulations After Reno 1117
Ashcroft v. Free Speech Coalition 1121
Violent Speech in New Media 1126
United States v. Stevens 1126
Regulating Violent Speech in New Media After Stevens 1128
Brown v. Entertainment Merchants Ass’n 1129
Section 7. Commercial Speech 1132
Virginia Pharmacy Board v. Virginia Citizens Consumer Council 1133
Commercial Speech and First Amendment Theory 1137
Commercial Speech After Virginia Pharmacy 1140
Central Hudson Gas v. Public Service Comm’n 1142
Commercial Speech Regulation After Central Hudson 1145
44 Liquormart, Inc. v. Rhode Island 1148
Commercial Speech Regulation After Liquormart 1152
Chapter 12. Freedom of Speech—Modes of Regulation and Standards of Review
1159
Section 1. Content-Based and Content-Neutral Regulations 1159
The Distinction Between Content-Based and Content-Neutral Laws 1160
Reed v. Town of Gilbert 1160
Content-Neutral Regulation and Symbolic Conduct 1176
United States v. O’Brien 1176
The Significance of O’Brien 1180
Flag Desecration 1184
Texas v. Johnson 1186
Texas v. Johnson and Its Aftermath 1192
Holder v. Humanitarian Law Project 1195
The Implications of Humanitarian Law Project 1202
Nude Dancing 1204
Barnes v. Glen Theatre, Inc. 1204
Applying Barnes 1207
Speech Versus Conduct in Pricing 1209
Section 2. Government Power to Limit Speech in Conferral of Benefits as Regulator and Employer 1210
Public Forums and Public Property 1210
Early Public Forum Cases 1211
The “Time, Place and Manner” Test 1221
Public Order and Safety 1222
Aesthetics 1224
Members of City Council v. Taxpayers for Vincent 1227
Clark v. Community for Creative Non-Violence 1232
Tranquility, Privacy and Repose 1236
Invalid Time, Place, or Manner Regulation 1245
Speaker Access to Public Places Other than Traditional Public Forums 1247
Libraries, Jails and Schools 1247
Buses, Theaters and Military Bases 1251
Public and Nonpublic Forums 1255
Religious Speech on Public Property 1283
Spheres of Government Control: Government as Educator, Employer and Patron 1290
Student Speech in Public Schools 1290
Speech and Association by Public Employees and Contractors 1301
Public Employee Speech 1302
Connick v. Myers 1304
Pickering and Connick Compared 1307
Public Employee Political Party Affiliation 1315
Speech-Restrictive Conditions on Public Funds 1322
Agency for International Development v. Alliance for Open Society International, Inc. 1338
Matal v. Tam 1343
Viewpoint Discrimination 1347
Section 3. Overbreadth, Vagueness and Prior Restraint 1347
Overbreadth 1348
Vagueness 1363
Prior Restraint 1365
Licensing 1366
Injunctions 1373
Near v. Minnesota ex rel. Olson 1374
Prior Restraint and National Security 1377
New York Times Co. v. United States [The Pentagon Papers Case] 1377
The Scope and Limits of Pentagon Papers 1383
Prior Restraint and Fair Trial 1385
Chapter 13. Beyond Speaking—Compelled Speech, Association, Money and the Media
1389
Section 1. Compelled Speech: The Right Not to Speak 1389
Compelled Individual Speech 1390
National Institute of Family and Life Advocates v. Becerra 1399
State Compelled Access to Private Forums 1402
Compelled Speech, Commercial Speech and Economic Regulation 1408
Compelled Speech and Private Discrimination 1414
Hurley v. Irish-American Gay, Lesbian and Bisexual Group of Boston [GLIB] 1414
Hurley’s Reach 1416
Section 2. Freedom of Expressive Association 1418
Compelled Disclosure of Membership 1419
NAACP v. Alabama 1420
Compelled Disclosure in the Civil Rights Era 1421
Compelled Disclosure of Political Campaign Contributions 1424
Restrictions on Organizational Activity 1428
NAACP v. Button 1428
The Meaning and Implications of NAACP v. Button 1430
Denial of Government Benefits Because of Association 1436
Compelled Association: The Right Not to Associate 1439
Boy Scouts of America v. Dale 1449
Dale and Compelled Speech and Association 1451
Freedom of Association and Political Party Procedures 1452
Section 3. Money and Political Campaigns 1460
Buckley v. Valeo 1461
Buckley’s Approach and Aftermath 1468
Parties, Corporations, PACs, Super PACs and Political Money 1473
Enactment of and Constitutional Challenges to BCRA 1479
McConnell v. Federal Election Commission 1480
Federal Election Comm’n v. Wisconsin Right to Life 1486
McConnell Compared with WRTL 1490
Citizens United v. Federal Election Commission 1494
After Citizens United 1502
McCutcheon v. F.E.C. 1507
Section 4. Journalism and Media 1513
Press Access to Government Information 1515
Governmental Demands for Information from the Press 1526
Branzburg v. Hayes 1527
Journalistic Privilege After Branzburg 1532
Laws Singling Out the Press 1534
Minneapolis Star & Tribune Co. v. Minnesota Comm’r of Revenue 1534
The Implications and Limits of Minneapolis Star 1538
The First Amendment and the Broadcast Media 1543
Scarcity and Access 1544
The Information Age 1550
Chapter 14. The Religion Clauses: Free Exercise and Establishment
1557
Section 1. A Brief History of the Religion Clauses 1558
Section 2. The Definition of “Religion” 1565
The Limits of Judicial Inquiry into Religious Belief 1568
Section 3. The Free Exercise of Religion 1570
Laws Discriminating Against Religion 1570
Church of the Lukumi Babalu Aye v. City of Hialeah 1571
Identifying Antireligious Purpose 1575
Religious Exemptions 1580
Sherbert v. Verner 1583
Limiting the Scope of Mandatory Religious Exemptions? 1585
Employment Division, Dept. of Human Resources v. Smith 1593
Smith and Religious Exemptions 1601
Constitutional Law by Statute: Legislative Reponses to Smith 1607
Section 4. The Establishment Clause 1615
Public Financial Aid to Religious Institutions 1616
Everson v. Board of Education 1617
Maintaining a “Wall of Separation”? 1619
Mueller v. Allen 1623
Religious Inclusion in Public Subsidies: Everson vs. Mueller 1627
Zelman v. Simmons-Harris 1635
The Meaning and Implications of Zelman 1642
Religion in Public Schools 1644
Prayer in Public Schools 1644
Lee v. Weisman 1648
Coercion vs. Endorsement 1655
Religion and the Public School Curriculum 1657
Edwards v. Aguillard 1660
Defining Religion vs. Science 1664
Public Displays of Religious Symbols 1665
Lynch v. Donnelly 1671
Applying the Endorsement Test 1677
McCreary County v. ACLU of Kentucky 1682
Van Orden v. Perry 1688
Section 5. Reconciling the Religion Clauses 1695
Values Reconciling the Religion Clauses 1695
Funding for Religious Education and Institutions 1696
Funding for Religious Entities 1699
Trinity Lutheran Church of Columbia, Inc. v. Comer 1699
Legislative Accommodation of Religion 1703
Appendix. Table of Justices
1711
Index 1719
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